Chapter 8: Conclusion

By analysing evidence from a variety of disciplines including archaeology, other types of material culture studies, history and economics among others, this dissertation has demonstrated how changes and developments in the cultivation, harvesting and milling of bread crops as well as in home and commercial baking and in dietary habits over the last five centuries have contributed to the present-day situation in Britain where cheap mass-produced pre-sliced and wrapped white wheat bread is the most popular incarnation of the ‘staff of life’. It has been demonstrated that while wheat bread had been regarded as the most desirable kind since before the 16th century, it was during the 18th and 19th centuries, a period of agricultural as well as industrial revolution, that a series of innovations enabled the production of larger quantities of ever whiter versions of this important staple. However, the very desirability of white wheat bread in Britain, which contrasts with the situation in several other European countries, appears to be one of the key points, and while cost, health and nutrition factors have been put forward by some experts, this authors believes that it is white wheat bread’s role as a status symbol in bygone centuries which became embedded in a nation’s subconscious and ensured its dominant role in the diet of modern Britain.

While a number of aspects related to the industrialisation and urbanisation of Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries contributed to the predominance of shop-bought bread, it was price control in the immediate post-World War 2 period which allowed the plant baking sector to expand to such a degree as to dominate the bread market with products whose availability and convenience are deemed more important than their flavour by many contemporary British consumers.

The time period which has been the subject of this dissertation witnessed major transformations in cereal and legume cultivation systems, techniques and technologies. Open field systems gave way to increasingly specialised and large-scale enclosed agricultural holdings, and mechanisation replaced much of the manual labour. Both scientific developments and agricultural policies favoured these trends, and as of the end of the 20th century wheat and barley were the main crops grown on British tillage farms. The themes of mechanisation and consolidation recur when looking at the development of the milling industry over the last five centuries. Ancient techniques of grinding grain by hand-operated querns and in water- or wind mills between circular stones were gradually superseded by steam power and what has arguably been the most significant innovation, roller milling, greatly increasing output as well as allowing for the production of whiter flour.

An analysis of home bread baking during the period in question shows a long period of coexistence between older and newer techniques and technologies as well as significant regional differences both in the types of breads made and in the equipment used, with strong correlations between the two. Scotland stands out for not having a popular tradition of domestic bread ovens or loaf breads, for reasons as yet unclear, while the development of ovens and baking technologies in Wales shows marked regional variations, a very slow spread of innovations and a longer persistence of home baking than in most other parts of Britain.

The general decline of home baking in the 19th century was paralleled by the mechanisation, industrialisation and consolidation of the baking trade, a process which continued into the second half of the 20th century. The 1960s saw the development of the Chorleywood Bread Process, sacrificing flavour for speed and accounting for around 80% of bread sold in Britain today.

Bread in its various forms remained the single most important item in most British families’ diet (and budget) until the second half of the 19th century, constituting virtually the only foodstuff for the poorest, and while overall consumption has gradually declined since, it still accounts for a larger proportion of calorie intake the lower the household income. Thus the link between bread and social class persists.

Further research

As alluded to above, the subject of bread in Britain would benefit from comparative studies with other countries - especially those with similar climatic conditions - who do not exhibit the same preference for white sliced bread, in an attempt to shed more light on this cultural bias. Regional as well as urban-rural differences in bread baking and consumption patterns merit closer investigation, as does the impact of comparatively recent developments such as the organic agriculture and health food movements. Most importantly, however, this author strongly believes that the discipline of archaeology would be well placed to make a significant contribution to the topic by embracing a multidisciplinary approach as well as striving to overcome the urban bias which prevents industrial archaeologists from considering matters agricultural and rural as part of their domain.