As previous chapters have attempted to demonstrate, modern Britain’s strong predilection for (white) wheat bread can be seen as the result of developments stretching back 500 years or even further. By the time of writing this paper in the early 21st century this bias appears to be firmly entrenched. In the mid-19th century Isabella Beeton wrote that “wheat flour yields the best bread” (Beeton 1861, 781), and in a more recent work McLaren and Evans demonstrate a similar cultural bias when stating that “the best quality bread would have been made entirely of wheat flour…” (McLaren and Evans 2002, 171). Interestingly, and somewhat frustratingly, many writers on this subject seem to treat “whole wheat” and “cereal grains other than wheat” as interchangeable, which muddles their argument considerably. The existence of, for instance, white rye flour is completely ignored. Over the last five centuries a number of factors relating to the various stages from field to plate have favoured this development towards the dominance of white wheat bread.
7. 1. White wheat and cultivation
Prior to the 18th century wheat was primarily grown along the southern and eastern coasts of Britain, where soils were most suitable; between them other cereals such as rye, barley and oats could be grown under a wider variety of geological and climatic conditions (Petersen 1995, 15). Rye, however, needed sandy soils to thrive and was furthermore particularly susceptible to ergot fungi (which could also affect wheat) (Hoskins 1951; Petersen 1995) (fig. 7.1.1.).
It was a logical consequence that most wheat bread was consumed in wheat-growing districts, and that breads made from other grains were the staple in many other areas (Trinder 1993, 125). From the 18th century onwards, however, this situation began to change gradually. The introduction of the Norfolk four-course rotation enabled the cultivation of wheat on some previously unsuitable soils (Fussell 1943, 23), and when chemical fertilisers came onto the market around the middle of the following century many cereal farmers were able to specialise in cash crops such as wheat without having to follow the traditional crop rotations (Fussell 1948, ; Langlands et al. 2008). New varieties of wheat developed in the 20th century further extended the cultivation range of this grain (Holderness 1985, 48).
7. 2. White wheat and milling
The milling industry, too, experienced major changes from the 18th century onwards which contributed to the prevalence of white wheat bread. As a secondary consequence of advances in weaving techniques linen, canvas and wool meal sieves could be replaced with fine silk which produced finer and whiter flour (Sheppard and Newton 1957; David 1977; Watts 2002). The invention of roller milling in the 19th century represents a further development in the same direction in that by removing the germ from the grain even before grinding consistently white flour with greatly improved storage properties could be achieved (Sheppard and Newton 1957; David 1977).
7. 3.White wheat and baking
In Britain wheat flour has been perceived to be the most advantageous for bread baking since at least the 16th century. Andrewe Boord admonished “gentle bakers” not to “sophysticate your bread made from pure wheate” (before descending into a slightly bizarre rant about what he wanted to do those who did) (Boord 1576). Elizabeth Beeton, too, stated categorically that “everybody knows it is wheat flour which yields the best bread.” (Beeton 1861, 781). It has been argued that pure wheat bread rises the highest to due wheat’s higher gluten content (Petersen 1995, 17). While this is generally true, a lot depends on the baking method used, as confirmed by numerous experiments carried out by the author in a domestic setting, and furthermore this brings up the question of why highly-risen loaves are considered so desirable in the first place.
Rye flour in particular is considered by some to be difficult to handle in baking, with a real risk of ruining the entire batch (Petersen 1995, 17); however, this can be mitigated considerably by mixing it with wheat flour (David 1977, 65), as common in many other countries. Furthermore the baker’s experience and expertise must surely play a crucial role here. Sourdough has been found to be particularly suitable as a leaven for rye bread, and such breads have been traditional favourites in Central Europe, Scandinavia and among Jewish communities in many countries (David 1977, 67).
7. 4. White wheat, storage and transport
The superior keeping qualities of bran-less flour have been recognised for centuries (Markham 1615, 68), but before the arrival of roller milling the inevitable presence of fragments of the germ in flour limited its storage potential. It also limited its distribution range (Fenton 1976, 164), especially prior to the development of canal and railway transport. 18th and 19th century millers preferred to sell quantities of white flour as it was less likely to spoil on long sea voyages (Petersen 1995, 55-56); something which is, however, no longer a major concern in the era of climate-controlled storage and transport. Conversely, rye bread has been considered by some to keep fresh longer than wheat bread (Beeton 1861, 783), but with bread of various kinds being the staple and thus regularly consumed in large quantities for most of the last 500 years, this presented arguably less of an advantage than it might nowadays, especially when the different sizes of the average household are taken into account.
7. 5. White wheat, health and nutrition
While rye, barley, oats and wheat are all nutritionally valuable for human beings (Petersen 1995, 15), food and health writers from Andrewe Boord onwards have shown a bias in favour of wheat. Boord believed that bread containing any grain other than wheat filled the stomach, but was of no nutritional benefit to man (Boord 1576). Elizabeth Beeton, too, believed wheat to be the most nutritious grain, followed by rye, barley and oats in that order, but argued that the whiter the bread the less nourishment it contained (Beeton 1861, 782-782).
Chris Petersen’s (1995, 30) explanation for the dominance of white wheat bread in Britain from the 18th century onwards compared to the situation in some other European countries raises more questions than it answers. He argues that the Germans, unlike the English, continued to eat rye bread because Germany remained an agricultural country for longer, and since agricultural labourers were more physically active than industrial workers, they could digest and absorb “coarser” grains better (Petersen 1995, 30). Apart from the usual confusion of “coarse” and “non-wheat”, this ignores the fact that much of early industrial work was also very physically demanding, and it does not explain why English agricultural labourers (who did not exactly vanish after the beginning of the Industrial Revolution) developed an equally strong preference for white wheat bread. Nor does it account for the present day population of Germany, a highly industrialised country just like modern Britain, exhibiting a continuing predilection for rye bread. A 2003 survey found that rye or rye-mix bread was the favourite bread of 36% of respondents, followed by wheat or wheat-mix bread at 22% (Kütscher 2006).
Both Isabella Beeton (1861, 783) and Chris Petersen (1995, 26) mention supposed laxative qualities of rye and/or barley. This appears to be borne out by some modern studies (Holma et al. 2010; Home remedy for constipation nd. [b]); however, it is not entirely clear whether this effect is due specifically to the use of rye or barley or simply to the use of wholegrain flour. While it is conceivable that such perceived properties may have discouraged the mass of the population in the 18th and 19th centuries who relied on bread as their main source of calories (Petersen 1995, 25-26), one might conversely expect those same qualities to have made rye and barley bread more popular in the 20th century, but this is clearly not the case in Britain. It would appear that factors related to health and nutrition likely played a minor role in ensuring the dominance of white wheat bread.
7. 6. White wheat, cost and status
Until at least the 18th century wheaten and especially white bread was eaten with any regularity only by the higher classes in Britain (Markham 1615; Fenton 1976; Fenton 2007), and one cannot help but wonder if wheat bread’s role as a status symbol has become embedded in a nation’s subconscious. As discussed above, wheat had become the principal bread grain in Britain overall by the beginning of the 18th century, but with significant geographical and social variations (Sheppard and Newton 1957; Fenton 2007). However, for the poorer classes cost and economy played arguably as big a part as status in their bread preferences. Petersen (1995, 24-27) demonstrates that wheat is a more efficient producer of net energy than other grains, and argues that “coarser” (by which he means non-wheat) bread had to be accompanied by some type of fat to enable it to be chewed and digested, while wheat bread could be eaten plain, thus saving on additional expenses. Nevertheless the cost of wheat flour and wheat bread could put it out of poorer people’s reach. The decline in the consumption of oat- and barley bread in Wales following the dramatic fall in wheat prices in the 1880s (Tibbot 2002, 80) demonstrates both the desirability of wheat bread among the population of the time and the importance of economics in the choice of the dietary staple.
oatcakes
(Fenton 2007, 367)
It should be stressed, however, that the use of other cereals for bread persisted in various parts of Britain for a long time, and in some cases to this day. Commercial bakers in Scotland and the North of England continued to use rye, barley and oats at least into the 19th century (Petersen 1995, 24). Scottish oatcakes are still made in some homes, and today one can buy them in supermarkets and health food shops both in Scotland and in other parts of Britain (Fenton 2007, 263) (fig. 7.6.1.).
Non-wheat flours are experiencing something of a revival either as health/special diet foods or as a response to demand from various ‘ethnic’ communities, offering increased variety at least to the home baker, albeit at a price. All the while, however, the dominance of sliced wrapped bread appears undiminished. In the early 21st century sliced white bread is typically one of the ‘loss-leaders’ sold below cost in supermarkets to attract customers, since it is one of the foodstuffs bought regularly and reliably by most British households (Lawrence 2004, 120-121).
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